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what did the spanish do to the pomos

Indigenous Californians

Pomo

Suscol Intertribal Council 2015 Pow-wow - Stierch 31.jpg

Pomo woman in traditional regalia in 2015
Total population
1770: eight,000
1851: 3,500–5,000
1910: 777–1,200
1990: 4,900
2010: 10,308
Regions with significant populations
United States ( California: Mendocino County, Sonoma Valley, Napa Valley, Lake County, Colusa Canton)
Languages
Pomoan languages, English
Religion
Kuksu, Messiah Cult, traditional Pomo faith

The Pomo are an Indigenous people of California. Historical Pomo territory in Northern California was big, bordered by the Pacific Declension to the west, extending inland to Clear Lake, and mainly betwixt Cleone and Duncans Betoken. One pocket-size group, the Northeastern Pomo of the Stonyford vicinity of Colusa County, was separated from the core Pomo area by lands inhabited by Yuki and Wintuan speakers.

The name Pomo derives from a conflation of the Pomo words [pʰoːmoː] and [pʰoʔmaʔ].[one] It originally meant "those who alive at red earth hole" and was one time the name of a village in southern Potter Valley near the present-day community of Pomo.[ii] It may have referred to local deposits of the cherry-red mineral magnesite, used for cherry beads, or to the cherry earth and clay, such every bit hematite, mined in the surface area.[3] In the Northern Pomo dialect, -pomo or -poma was used equally a suffix afterwards the names of places, to mean a subgroup of people of the place.[3] [4] By 1877, the use of Pomo had been extended in English to mean the entire people known today as the Pomo.[three]

History [edit]

Map of the historical distribution of the Pomoan languages with neighboring groups indicated

The people chosen Pomo were originally linked past location, language, and cultural expression. They were not socially or politically linked equally a unified group. Instead, they lived in small groups or bands linked by lineage and spousal relationship.

Precontact [edit]

According to some linguistic theories, the Pomo people descend from the Hokan-speaking people[ citation needed ]. One theory places the ancestral community from which the Pomoan languages and cultures are descended in the Sonoma County, California region[ commendation needed ]. This area was where coastal redwood forests met with interior valleys with mixed woodlands. In this hypothesis, about 7000 BCE, a Hokan-speaking people migrated into the valley and mountain regions around Clear Lake, and their linguistic communication evolved into Proto-Pomo. The lake was rich in resource. About 4000 BCE to 5000 BCE, some of the proto-Pomo migrated into the Russian River Valley and north to present-day Ukiah. Their language diverged into western, southern, primal and northern Pomo[ citation needed ].

Another people, possibly Yukian speakers, lived get-go in the Russian River Valley and the Lake Sonoma area. The Pomo slowly displaced them and took over these places.[5] Recently, analysis of archaeological prove has suggested that the indigenous historical economy observed by the Castilian at their inflow in the Pomo lands of central California may have first developed during the Mostin Civilization period (8500–6300 BP) in the Clear Lake Basin. This was an economic system that was based on women processing acorns past mortar and pestle.[half dozen]

Tolay Lake site [edit]

Over i,000 prehistoric charmstones and numerous arrowheads have been unearthed at Tolay Lake, in southern Sonoma County. These are attributed to both Pomo and Declension Miwok people. Every bit a sacred site, the lake was a formalism gathering and healing place.[seven] [8]

Lake Sonoma sites [edit]

  • At "the broken bridge site", researchers used radiocarbon dating of artifacts to decide it was inhabited about 3280 BCE, the oldest human-inhabited site in the valley. They consider it part of Skaggs Phase (3000–500 BCE).[9]
  • "Oregon Oak Identify" was dated at 1843 BCE. The surveyors suggested that, compared to the lower river valleys, this remote area was more sparsely settled before the Pomo people arrived.

A Pomo Indian in a tule gunkhole, circa 1924.

Both of these Skaggs Phase-sites independent millstones and handstones for grinding seeds. The villages may take been used for hunting or temporary camps. Obsidian was used rarely, and information technology came from Mt. Konocti in present-day Lake Canton. At that place were no petroglyphs. The population lived only forth major creeks.[9]

"The Dry Creek Phase" lasted from 500 BCE to 1300 CE. During this phase, the indigenous people settled the lands more than extensively and permanently. Archaeologists believe a Pomo group took over the lands from the earlier peoples in this phase. They created 14 additional sites in the Warm Springs and Upper Dry out Creek areas. Bowl mortars and pestles appeared in this phase, probably used by women to pound acorns (equally opposed to the milling stones used for seeds). The sites were more permanent and lifeways "more complex". Decorative beads and ornaments were made in this phase, and half the artifacts were made of obsidian. Steatite or soapstone objects were found, which must have been imported into the region through trade, as the rock does non exist locally. Relatively soft and easy to carve, soapstone was used to brand chaplet, pendants and mortars. Trade was on a large scale beyond the region. The largest and only substantial steatite mine in California existed on Catalina Isle, one of the Channel Islands off the coast of what is now Los Angeles. The existence of steatite in Pomo and Northern California native sites is a strong indicator of the size and complexity of native California trade networks.[ten]

The next phase, named the "Smith Phase" after the Pomo consultants, lasted from 1300 CE to the mid-19th century. Researchers mapped 30 sites in this era showing a gradual transition and intensification of trends. The bow and arrow appeared as the principal technological advancement. Manufacturing of shell beads, with accompanying product of drills to make holes for stringing and sewing, was of import. Drills were institute in high numbers. Numerous clamshell chaplet, a major currency among the Indians of Key California, were too constitute, indicating a vast trade network.[11]

Post contact [edit]

In that location were an estimated 8,000 to 21,000 Pomo amongst 70 tribes speaking vii Pomo languages at the time of European contact.[12] [13] The way of life of the Pomo changed with the inflow of Russians at Fort Ross (1812 to 1841) on the Pacific coastline, and Spanish missionaries and European-American colonists coming in from the south and due east. The Pomo native to the coastline and Fort Ross were known as the Kashaya. They interacted and traded with the Russians.

The Spanish missionaries moved many of the southern Pomo from the Santa Rosa Plainly to Mission San Rafael, at present-day San Rafael, between 1821 and 1828. Only a few Pomo speakers moved to Mission Sonoma, the other Franciscan mission, located on the due north side of San Francisco Bay. The Pomo who remained in the nowadays-twenty-four hour period Santa Rosa area of Sonoma County were oftentimes called Cainameros in regional history books from the time of Castilian and Mexican occupation.

In the Russian River Valley, a missionary baptized the Makahmo Pomo people of the Cloverdale expanse. Many Pomo left the valley because of this. One such grouping fled to the Upper Dry Creek Surface area. The archeology surveyors of the Lake Sonoma region believe that European and Euro-American encroachment was the reason why Pomo villages became more centralized; the people retreated to the remote valley to band together for defense force and common support.[xi]

The Pomo suffered from the infectious diseases brought by the Euro-American migrants, including cholera and smallpox. They did not accept immunity to such diseases and fatalities were high.[14] In 1837 a deadly epidemic of smallpox, originating in settlements at Fort Ross, caused numerous deaths of native people in the Sonoma and Napa regions.[fifteen]

The Russian River Valley was settled in 1850 past the 49ers, and the Lake Sonoma Valley was homesteaded out. The US regime forced many Pomo on to reservations so that the European-Americans could homestead the onetime Pomo lands. Some Pomo took jobs every bit ranch laborers; others lived in refugee villages.

During this fourth dimension period, ii settlers named Andrew Kelsey and Charles Rock enslaved many Pomo people in guild to work as cowboys on their ranch.[xvi] [17] They forced the Pomo Indians to work in very intense and unorthodox weather, and sexually abused the Pomo women. The Pomo men were forced to work in harsh weather condition and were not given any respect by the settlers. Somewhen, the Pomo Indians got sick of the boldness and horrid practices of Stone and Kelsey, and then they rebelled.

The Pomo men set up a sneak attack and killed both Rock and Kelsey.[16] [18] [19] Considering of the deaths of Kelsey and Rock, U.s.a. lieutenant J. W. Davidson and captain Nathaniel Lyon sent an ground forces to retaliate against the Pomo people. This resulted in an outcome called the Bloody Island Massacre of 1850, on an island in Articulate Lake.[16] [17] The 1st Dragoons Usa Cavalry slaughtered betwixt 60 and 400 people, more often than not women and children of the Clear Lake Pomo and neighboring tribes.[20]

Members of the Round Valley Indian Tribe retrace a forced 1863 relocation to Covelo, California

Shortly subsequently the massacre, during 1851 and 1852, four reservations for the Pomo were established by the United States government in California. Pomo were as well office of the forced relocation known as the "Marches to Circular Valley" in 1856, conducted past the U.S. federal authorities. Past using bullwhips and guns, white settlers demanded relocation to reservations of the Pomo Indian. The justification given was that to protect their culture, the Pomo Indians had to exist removed from their ancestral land.[eighteen]

Richerson & Richerson stated that before the European conquests there was an estimated 3,000 Pomo Indians that lived at Clear Lake; afterward all of the decease, affliction, and killings, there were only near 400 Pomo Indians left.[16]

I ghost town in the Lake Sonoma Valley excavations was identified as Amacha, congenital for 100 people only hardly used. Elder natives of the region call back their grandfathers hid at Amacha in the mid-1850s, trying to evade the oncoming immigrants. They tell that one mean solar day soldiers took all the people in the village to government lands and burned the hamlet houses.[21]

From 1891 to 1935, starting with National Thorn, the artist Grace Hudson painted over 600 portraits, mainly of Pomo individuals living virtually her in the Ukiah expanse. Her style was sympathetic and poignant, as she portrayed domestic native scenes that would have been fast disappearing in that time.[22]

Population [edit]

Demographics [edit]

In 1770 there were about 8,000 Pomo people; in 1851 population was estimated betwixt iii,500 and 5,000; and in 1880 estimated at i,450.[23] Anthropologist Samuel Barrett estimated a population of 747 in 1908, but that is probably depression; swain anthropologist Alfred 50. Kroeber reported 1,200 Pomo counted in the 1910 Census.[24] According to the 1930 Census there were 1,143 Pomo, and by the 1990 Census there were 4,766.[25]

According to the 2010 United States Census, in that location are x,308 Pomo people in the U.s.. Of these, eight,578 reside in California.[26]

Languages [edit]

Pomo, as well known as Pomoan or less normally Kulanapan, is a linguistic communication family that includes seven singled-out and mutually unintelligible languages, including Northern Pomo, Northeastern Pomo, Eastern Pomo, Southeastern Pomo, Primal Pomo, Southern Pomo, and Kashaya. John Wesley Powell classified the language family unit as Kulanapan in 1891, using the name offset introduced by George Gibbs in 1853. This name for the language family is derived from the name of 1 Eastern Pomo village on the south shore of Clear Lake.[27] Stephen Powers (1877) was the first to refer to this unabridged language family with the name "Pomo", and the geographic names that have been used to refer to the 7 private Pomoan languages (e.m. Southeastern Pomo) were introduced by Samuel Barrett (1908).

The Pomoan languages became severely endangered later on European-American colonization of their native territory. Contacts with Russians, the Spanish, and Euro-Americans have impacted these languages, and many are no longer spoken due to linguistic communication shift to English. There are about twelve Pomo linguistic communication varieties that are withal in employ by Pomo people.

Civilization [edit]

Home made of many horizontal layers of straw, creating a long and narrow structure

Pomo business firm, of wicker-work

The Pomo Indian cultures are several ethnolinguistic groups that make upwards a single language family unit in Northern California. Pomo cultures originally encompassed hundreds of independent communities.

Like many other Native groups, the Pomo Indians of Northern California relied upon fishing, hunting, and gathering for their daily food supply. They ate salmon, wild greens, gnats, mushrooms, berries, grasshoppers, rabbits, rats, and squirrels. Acorns were the near important staple in their diet. The sectionalization of labor in Pomo Indian communities typically involved gathering and preparation of plant-based foods past women, while men were hunters and fishers.

Doctor's Headdress (guk-tsu-shua), Pomo (Native American), 1906–1907, Brooklyn Museum

Religion [edit]

The Pomo people participated in shamanism; one grade this took was the Kuksu faith, which was held past people in Primal and Northern California. It included elaborate acting and dancing ceremonies in traditional costume, an annual mourning ceremony, puberty rites of passage, shamanic intervention with the spirit world, and an all-male person gild that met in subterranean dance rooms.[28] [29] The Pomo believed in a supernatural beingness, the Kuksu or Guksu (depending on their dialect), who lived in the southward and who came during ceremonies to heal their illnesses, along with spirits from six cardinal directions, and Coyote as their ancestor and creator god.[30] [31] Medicine men dressed upwards as Kuksu, their estimation of a healer spirit.

A afterward shamanistic movement was the "Messiah Cult", introduced by the Wintun people. It was skillful through 1900. This cult believed in prophets who had dreams, "waking visions" and revelations from "presiding spirits", and "almost formed a priesthood". The prophets earned much respect and condition among the people.[32]

Traditional narratives [edit]

The record of Pomo myths, legends, tales, and histories is all-encompassing. The body of narratives is classed within the Cardinal California cultural pattern.

Ethnobotany [edit]

Carex roots are used to make baskets, and used to tend line-fishing traps.[33] They are also used to make torches.[34]

Basket weaving tradition [edit]

Pomo baskets fabricated by Pomo Indian women of Northern California are recognized worldwide for their exquisite appearance, range of technique, fineness of weave, and diverseness of form and employ. While women mostly made baskets for cooking, storing food, and religious ceremonies, Pomo men too made baskets for fishing weirs, bird traps, and baby baskets.

Girl's Coiled Dowry or Puberty Basket (kol-chu or ti-ri-bu-ku), late 19th century, Brooklyn Museum

Making the baskets required peachy skill and knowledge in collecting and preparing the needed materials. Materials for weaving baskets changed with the seasons and years, so did the materials used for the baskets. The Pomo usually covered a basket completely with the vivid cherry-red feathers of the pileated woodpecker until the surface resembled the smoothness of the bird itself. With the feathers, 30-50 to every inch, beads were attached to the basket'south edge and hung pendants of polished abalone beat out from the handbasket itself. Pomo women sometimes spent months or years making such gift baskets.

The materials used to make the baskets—including, but not express to, swamp canes, saguaro cactuses, rye grass, black ash, willow shoots, sedge roots, the bark of redbud, the root of bulrush, and the root of the gray pine—were harvested annually.[35] After being picked, the materials are dried, cleaned, split, soaked, and dyed. Sometimes the materials are also boiled over a fire and set in the dominicus to dry out.

Women traditionally wove Pomo baskets with great care and technique. The three unlike techniques of Pomo basket weaving are plaiting, coiling, and twining.[36] Ane drying method was wrapping maiden fern in blue clay and placing secret for several days. This prevented fading in the sun or when cooking mush.

There are many different designs that are woven into the baskets that signify different cultural meanings. For case, the Dau is a blueprint woven into a basket by creating a minor change in the stitching to create a small opening betwixt 2 stitches. The Dau is the design that is also chosen the Spirit Door. This Spirit Door allows good spirits to come up and circulate inside of the handbasket while the practiced or bad spirits are released.[36]

Pomo handbasket on brandish, ca.1900

Although baskets were made for decorating homes and as gifts, they were centrally used in Pomo daily life as well. Basket weaving is considered sacred to the Pomo tribe and baskets were produced for a diversity of purposes. Pomo children were cradled in baskets, acorns (a major food staple to the Pomo) were harvested in great conical burden baskets, and nutrient was stored, cooked, and served in baskets—some even being watertight.[36] At that place were even "baskets" that were made as boats to be pushed by men to carry women across rivers.

Post-contact [edit]

A commercial market developed in the latter part of the 19th century developed for authentic baskets, and information technology lasted from about 1876 to the 1930s.[37] Two Pomo people who capitalized on this marketplace were William Ralganal Benson and his wife, Mary Knight Benson and the Bensons may take been the first California Indians who supported themselves solely by crafting and selling their baskets to collectors and museums.[38]

Even though most of their original country was taken over, this was the showtime turning point for the Pomo people. They had finally escaped the harsh road they were in one case a part of, and even though they had to settle on poor, isolated land, they finally got to make a stride towards tradition and basket weaving.[18] From 1852 to 1878, many Pomo Indians tried to rekindle their cultures and find peace to what had happened to them. Many people allow this time exist a learning and spiritual time, where they could have visions and encounter what the future would have in store. Information technology was a time to build, a time to connect, a time of hope, and a time of change.[xix]

The Pomo Indians did non have enough money to purchase country. The Pomo men decided to piece of work for ranchers and the woman went dorsum to making baskets. The "white" people loved the baskets, especially the designer, feathered ones, which led to a basketry movement.[18] Finally, in 1878, the Pomo Indians bought their first slice of land in California. Paula Giese noted, "In 1878, a grouping of Northern Pomo people bought 7 acres in Coyote Valley. In 1880, another Northern Pomo grouping bought 100 acres along Ackerman Creek (now known every bit Pinoleville)".[18] In 1881, Yokaya Rancheria was financed by central Pomo people. Once the Pomo Indians had bought the land, it was time to make coin.

Baskets were in so much demand at this point, even though they were in one case used for trade and bartering with other tribes and people, they now became the Pomo people's way to make money and build their newly constitute empires.[eighteen] Women had preserved Pomo basket weaving traditions, which made a huge change for the Pomo people. The baskets were wanted all over California; it was a piece of art that traders wanted. Grandmothers and daughters taught other Pomo women, who had lost the tradition of handbasket weaving, how to make the all-powerful baskets.[39] [ failed verification ]

Within this time menstruum in addition to handbasket weaving, the Pomo also manufactured elaborate jewelry fabricated from abalone and clamshells.[35] Assembled during the winter, during the summer the Pomo would travel from various sites along the coast where they would fish and assemble all of their materials needed to create their jewelry. The Pomo Indians would create stunning, cute, and intricate forms of jewelry that were worn during celebrations and rituals, and even given as gifts.[36] Both of these traditions of creation and culture take slowly dispersed and have become less common over the history of the tribe but more axiomatic in today's culture.

Basket weaving today [edit]

Pomo basket weaving is withal valued and honored today, not only past the Pomo Indians themselves, but as well by amateur enthusiasts, buyers for curio dealers, and scientific collectors. The Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria are a federally recognized American Indian tribe of Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo Indians. During the past 30 years, the appreciation for American Indian art has been on the rising, and the art has become in demand – specifically Pomo Indian basketry. Dr. Joallyn Archambault, managing director of the American Indian Programme at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History says: "Since the 1880s, when Pomo baskets first became sought afterward, the Pomo have changed their lifestyles enormously." Pomo today alive normal modern lifestyles, but the basket weavers are still heralded and praised inside the community for their artistic power and skill.[40]

One of those basket weavers is Julia F. Parker. She is a main weaver, having woven under Lucy Telles. Her babyhood was rough, constantly moving around until boarding school after her parents' decease at 6. Lucy had taught Julia considering of her perceived involvement in preserving Indian culture and specifically basketry. Julia Parker became cultural demonstrator after Lucy Telles decease in 1956. She continued in her studies and later studied Pomo basketry with Pomo master weaver Elsie Allen (1899–1990) at Ukiah and several others. Julia belongs to the Miwok Pomo and Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria. Many of her baskets are in museums in Yosemite, Mono Lake and other museums; she even presented her baskets to Queen Elizabeth II.[ citation needed ]

The materials for baskets were sedge root, willow shoots and roots, bulrush or blackroot, redbud shoots, sometimes bracken fern and a variety of colorful bird feathers, abalone and other types of shells, magnesite beads and sometimes glass beads. Redbud shoots, used for the darker red colors in basket designs are gathered in Oct. Good redbud is hard to obtain around Ukiah, then it is usually found at Clear Lake. All these materials are gathered with a thankful middle and the gatherers talk continuously to the plants. They were, subsequently all, living things that were giving themselves for something useful and cute. In lodge to preserve the soil and creek banks, sedge gathering was done with care. The ordinarily held decision would exist leaving behind near half of what was institute. Dyeing of the bulrush root takes about 3 to six months in a concoction of black walnuts, rusty metallic and ashes in water.[41]

Today, new Pomo baskets might sell for every bit much as $ane,000, and the more historical ones might sell for more than $10,000.[ citation needed ] Dealing of these baskets has non e'er been so lucrative and many have tried to exploit the artists and communities. Dealers and collectors may have exploited the lucrative basket market, but it still paid well plenty to provide income to Pomo women where hunting and gathering were no longer feasible and money was needed for survival.[40]

Today you will see rare baskets being sold for the prices mentioned above. Due to the time and training necessary to weave these pieces of art; basket weavers today have more requests than they can fulfill, and many customers wait months earlier receiving orders. The rarity of the baskets and the skill are required in making them in what makes them valuable. The demand is greater than the supply, and collectors facilitate a high demand for these artistically fabricated baskets.

Villages and communities [edit]

Federally recognized tribes [edit]

The The states acknowledges many groups of native people of the U.s.a. as "federally recognized tribes", classifying them equally "domestic dependent nations" under the jurisdiction of the federal government, but with some autonomy from their respective states, including California. Many other self-identified Native American groups are non federally recognized. Since the belatedly 20th century, some states have begun to give formal recognition to tribes in varying ways.

The Pomo groups soon recognized past the U.s. are based in Sonoma, Lake, and Mendocino counties. They include the post-obit tribes:[42]

  • Big Valley Band of Pomo Indians of the Big Valley Rancheria
  • Cloverdale Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
  • Coyote Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California
  • Dry Creek Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
  • Elem Indian Colony of Pomo Indians of the Sulphur Bank Rancheria
  • Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria (a tribe of Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo)
  • Guidiville Rancheria of California
  • Habematolel Pomo of Upper Lake
  • Hopland Ring of Pomo Indians of the Hopland Rancheria
  • Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria
  • Koi Nation of the Lower Lake Rancheria
  • Lytton Rancheria of California
  • Manchester Ring of Pomo Indians of the Manchester Rancheria
  • Middletown Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
  • Pinoleville Pomo Nation
  • Potter Valley Tribe
  • Redwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
  • Robinson Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
  • Round Valley Indian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation (a confederation of several tribes, including Pomo)
  • Scotts Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California
  • Sherwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California.

Historical groups [edit]

The following historical list of Pomo villages and tribes is taken largely from John Wesley Powell, 1891:[27]

  • Balló Kaì Pomo, "Oat Valley People"(Potter Valley, Mendocino County)
  • Batemdikáyi
  • Búldam Pomo (Rio Grande or Big River)
  • Chawishek
  • Choam Chadila Pomo (Capello)
  • Chwachamajù
  • Dápishul Pomo (Redwood Canyon)
  • Eastern People (Articulate Lake about Lakeport)
  • Erío (oral cavity of Russian River)
  • Erússi (Fort Ross)
  • Gallinoméro (meliorate Kainameah, Kianamaras or Licatiuts) (Russian River Valley below Cloverdale and in Dry Creek Valley)
  • Gualála (amend Ahkhawalalee) (northwest corner of Sonoma County)
  • Kabinapek (western part of Clear Lake basin)
  • Kaimé (above Healdsburg)
  • Kai Pomo (between Eel River and Due south Fork)
  • Kastel Pomo (between Eel River and South Fork)
  • Kato Pomo, "Lake People" (Clear Lake)
  • Komácho (Anderson and Rancheria Valleys)
  • Kulá Kai Pomo (Sherwood Valley)
  • Kulanapo (Clear Lake)
  • Láma (Russian River Valley)
  • Misálamag[-u]n or Musakak[-u]n (above Healdsburg)
  • Mitoám Kai Pomo, "Wooded Valley People" (Little Lake)
  • Poam Pomo
  • Senel (Russian River Valley)
  • Shódo Kaí Pomo (Coyote Valley)
  • Síako (Russian River Valley)
  • Sokóa (Russian River Valley)
  • Yokáya (or Ukiah) Pomo, "Lower Valley People" (Ukiah City)
  • Yusâl (or Kámalel) Pomo, "Sea People" (on coast and along Usal Creek)

Non-Pomo villages and tribes considered "Pomo" in Powell, 1891:

  • Batemdikayi (name of a Cahto/Kato Athabaskan band)[43]
  • Kai Pomo ('grass people', the Cahto/Kato Athabaskan band of Long Valley)[44] [45]
  • Kamalel Pomo ('sea people', Coast Yuki people, peradventure also the Sinkyone Athabaskan people of Usal Creek area)[46]
  • Kastel Pomo (Wailaki Athabaskan bands, possibly including some of the northern Cahto bands)[45]
  • Kato Pomo ('lake people', the Cahto/Kato Athabaskan band of Cahto Valley)[44] [47] [48]
  • Yusal Pomo ('Usal people', the Sinkyone Athabaskan people of Usal Creek area)[44]

Notable Pomo people [edit]

  • Elsie Allen (1899–1990)
  • Mary Knight Benson (1877–1930)
  • William Ralganal Benson (1862-1937)
  • Chuck Baton (b. 1962), singer of the metallic ring Testament
  • Elmer Busch (1890–1949)
  • Mabel McKay (1907–1993)
  • Julia F. Parker
  • Essie Pinola Parrish (1903–1979)
  • Luwana Quitiquit (1941–2010), basket weaver who created a program to revive the craft[49]

Run across also [edit]

  • Signal Arena Rancheria Roundhouse, also known equally "Manchester Rancheria Roundhouse", listed on the National Register of Historic Places
  • Frog Woman Stone
  • Lake Mendocino
  • Santa Rosa Creek
  • Encarmine Island Massacre

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Campbell 1997, p. 379, fn. 68.
  2. ^ Kroeber 1916, pp. 55–56.
  3. ^ a b c McClendon & Oswalt 1978, p. 277.
  4. ^ Barrett 1910, p. 276.
  5. ^ Stewart 1985, pp. 13–xv.
  6. ^ White & Fredrickson 2002, pp. 345–351.
  7. ^ Friends of Tolay Lake Park, "Natural and Cultural History".
  8. ^ Sonoma Canton Regional Parks, "Tolay Lake Regional Park".
  9. ^ a b Stewart 1985, pp. 53–56.
  10. ^ Stewart 1985, pp. 56–59.
  11. ^ a b Stewart 1985, p. 59.
  12. ^ Oswalt 2005, "Demography".
  13. ^ Edwards 2012, "Origins and group affiliations".
  14. ^ Edwards 2012, "History".
  15. ^ Silliman 2004, pp. 60–61.
  16. ^ a b c d Richerson & Richerson 2001.
  17. ^ a b Smith-Ferri 1998.
  18. ^ a b c d east f Giese 1997.
  19. ^ a b Pritzker, "Pomo".
  20. ^ Lake Canton News, May 12, 2007.
  21. ^ Stewart 1985, pp. 59–sixty.
  22. ^ Grace Hudson Museum & Sun House, "Grace Carpenter Hudson".
  23. ^ Cook 1976, p. 239.
  24. ^ Kroeber 1925, p. 237.
  25. ^ Edwards 2012, "Population".
  26. ^ 2010 U.South. Census, "American Indian and Alaska Native Summary File".
  27. ^ a b Powell 1891, pp. 87–89.
  28. ^ Kroeber 1907, pp. 327–346.
  29. ^ Kroeber 1925, pp. 364–384.
  30. ^ Barrett 1917, pp. 423–431.
  31. ^ Curtis 1924, pp. 170–171.
  32. ^ Barrett 1917, pp. 398, 440–441.
  33. ^ Merriam 1967, p. 296.
  34. ^ Gifford 1976, pp. 11–12.
  35. ^ a b Dry Creek Rancheria Band of Pomo Indians, "Culture".
  36. ^ a b c d Phillips, "The Pomo".
  37. ^ Abel-Vidor, Brovarney & Billy 1996, p. 20.
  38. ^ Luthin 2002, p. 262.
  39. ^ King 1999.
  40. ^ a b Los Angeles Times, April nineteen, 1992.
  41. ^ Allen 1972, p. 20.
  42. ^ Digital Atlas of California Native Americans.
  43. ^ Goddard 1907, p. 665.
  44. ^ a b c Kroeber 1925, pp. 145, 154.
  45. ^ a b Barrett 1908a, p. 279, fn. 345.
  46. ^ Barrett 1908a, p. 260, fn. 298.
  47. ^ Barrett 1908a, p. 281, fn. 348.
  48. ^ Goddard 1903, pp. 375–376.
  49. ^ Alliance for California Traditional Arts, "Luwana Quitiquit".

References [edit]

Books, reports [edit]

  • Abel-Vidor, Suzanne; Brovarney, Dot; Billy, Susan (1996). Think Your Relations: The Elsie Allen Baskets, Family & Friends. Berkeley: Heyday Books. ISBN9780930588809. Catalog of an exhibition held at the Grace Hudson Museum in 1993 and the Oakland Museum of California in 1996.
  • Allen, Elsie (1972). Pomo Basketmaking: A Supreme Art for The Weaver . Edited past Vinson Brown (Rev. ed.). Healdsburg, CA: Naturegraph. ISBN9780879610166. OCLC 1036783241 – via Internet Archive.
  • Chocolate-brown, Vinson; Andrews, Douglas (1969). The Pomo Indians of California and Their Neighbors . American Indian Map-book Serial. Vol. 1. Healdsburg: Naturegraph Publishers. ISBN9780911010305. OCLC 1036813614 – via Cyberspace Archive.
  • Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Vol. 4. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195094275. OCLC 32923907. [ verification needed ]
  • Clark, Cora; Williams, Texa Bowen (1954). Pomo Indian Myths and Some of Their Sacred Meanings. New York: Vantage Press. OCLC 1477817 – via HathiTrust.
  • Cook, Sherburne F. (1976). The Disharmonize Between the California Indian and White Culture . Berkeley; Los Angeles: Academy of California Press. ISBN9780520031432. OL 15619879M – via Internet Archive.
  • Curtis, Edward S. (1924). Hodge, Frederick Webb (ed.). The Northward American Indian. Vol. fourteen. Seattle: Self-published. OCLC 25446503. Retrieved 2021-05-20 – via Northwestern University Library.
  • Gifford, E. W. (1976) [1967]. Ethnographic Notes on the Southwestern Pomo . Anthropological Records. Vol. 25 (Reprint ed.). Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint Co. OCLC 1149045363 – via Net Annal.
  • Heizer, Robert F.; Elsasser, Albert B. (1980). The Natural World of the California Indians . California Natural History Guides. Vol. 46. Berkeley; Los Angeles; London: Academy of California Press. ISBN9780520038967. OCLC 1036772401 – via Internet Archive.
  • Kroeber, Alfred L. (1925). Handbook of the Indians of California. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Vol. Bulletin 78. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Part. OCLC 424426 – via HathiTrust.
  • Luthin, Herbert, ed. (2002). Surviving Through the Days: Translations of Native California Stories and Songs, A California Indian Reader. Berkeley; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press. ISBN9780520222700.
  • Merriam, C. Hart (December 1967). Ethnographic Notes on California Indian Tribes, Part III: Ethnological Notes on Cardinal California Indian Tribes . Reports of the University of California Archaeological Survey. Vol. no. 68, role 3. Compiled and edited by Robert F. Heizer. Berkeley: Academy of California Archaeological Research Facility, Department of Anthropology. OCLC 1151427972 – via Internet Annal.
  • Patrick, K. C. (2008). The Pomo of Lake County. Images of America. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN9780738556048. OCLC 184823777.
  • Silliman, Stephen West. (2004). Lost Laborers in Colonial California: Native Americans and the Archaeology of Rancho Petaluma . Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN9780816523818. OCLC 55097876 – via Cyberspace Archive.
  • Stewart, Suzanne B. (1985). Fourth dimension earlier Time: Prehistory and Archaeology in the Lake Sonoma Surface area (Written report). Sacramento, CA: U.South. Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento District. OCLC 11782861.
  • White, Gregory G.; Fredrickson, David A., eds. (April 20, 2002). Cultural Diversity and Culture Change in Prehistoric Clear Lake Basin: Terminal Report of the Anderson Apartment Project (Report). Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Publication. Vol. 13. Contributions from Lori D. Hager, Jack Meyer, Jeffrey S. Rosenthal, Michael R. Waters, G. James West, and Eric Wohlgemuth. Davis, CA: Middle for Archaeological Research at Davis, Department of Anthropology, Academy of California. ISBN9781883019143. OCLC 52046054.

Journal manufactures, book chapters, encyclopedia entries [edit]

  • Barrett, Samuel A. (February 1908). "The Ethno-Geography of the Pomo and Neighboring Indians". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. half dozen (1). Berkeley: The University Press: i–332. OCLC 3705364 – via HathiTrust.
  • Barrett, Samuel A. (December 1908). "Pomo Indian Basketry". Academy of California Publications in American Archæology and Ethnology. 7 (3). Berkeley: The University Press: 133–308. OCLC 3435459 – via HathiTrust.
  • Barrett, Samuel A. (1910). "Pomo". In Hodge, Frederick Webb (ed.). Handbook of American Indians Due north of Mexico. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Vol. Bulletin 30, Function two. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. pp. 276–277. OCLC 1045950790 – via Cyberspace Archive.
  • Barrett, Samuel A. (July 1917). "Ceremonies of the Pomo Indians". Academy of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 12 (10). Berkeley: The Academy Press: 397–441. OCLC 1041789630 – via Internet Annal.
  • Edwards, Laurie J., ed. (2012). "Pomo". UXL Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. Vol. 4: California, Plateau (3rd ed.). Detroit: U·X·50. ISBN9781414490984. Archived from the original on 2020-11-25 – via Encyclopedia.com.
  • Goddard, P. Eastward. (1903). "The Kato Pomo not Pomo". American Anthropologist. five (two): 375–376. doi:10.1525/aa.1903.5.ii.02a00160. JSTOR 659067.
  • Goddard, P. East. (1907). "Kato". In Hodge, Frederick Webb (ed.). Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Vol. Bulletin xxx, Role 1. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. p. 665. OCLC 1045965579 – via Internet Archive.
  • Goddard, P. Eastward. (1910). "Wailaki". In Hodge, Frederick Webb (ed.). Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Smithsonian Establishment, Agency of American Ethnology. Vol. Message 30, Part two. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Role. pp. 893–894. OCLC 1045950790 – via Cyberspace Archive.
  • King, J. C. H. (1999). "Pomo Indian Basket Weavers. Their Baskets and the Fine art Market". American Anthropologist (Exhibit review). 101 (3): 619–627. doi:10.1525/aa.1999.101.3.619. JSTOR 683856.
  • Kroeber, Alfred Fifty. (September 1907). "The Religion of the Indians of California". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 4 (6). Berkeley: The University Press: 319–356. OCLC 899258893 – via Internet Archive.
  • Kroeber, Alfred 50. (June 1916). "California Place Names of Indian Origin". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 12 (2). Berkeley: The Academy Printing: 31–69. OCLC 166493897 – via HathiTrust.
  • McClendon, Sally; Oswalt, Robert L. (1978). "Pomo: Introduction". In Heizer, Robert F. (ed.). Handbook of Due north American Indians. Vol. 8: California. William C. Sturtevant, general editor. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 274–288. ISBN9780160045783. OCLC 1035088930 – via Internet Archive.
  • Metzler-Smith, Sandra J. (1981). "Quilts in Pomo Civilization" (PDF). Uncoverings. San Francisco: American Quilt Study Group. 1: 41–47. ISBN9781877859038. ISSN 0277-0628. Archived from the original on 2021-02-23 – via Quilt Alphabetize.
  • Oswalt, Robert L. (2005) [1996]. "Pomo". In Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Vol. ane: North America. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN9780028660868. Archived from the original on 2020-xi-25 – via Encyclopedia.com.
  • Patterson, Victoria (1998). "Alter and Continuity: Transformations of Pomo Life". Expedition Magazine. Vol. 40, no. ane. Philadelphia: Penn Museum. ISSN 0014-4738. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13.
  • Powell, John Wesley (1891). "Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico". Seventh Annual Report of the Agency of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1885-'86. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Part. pp. 7–148. OCLC 14961503 – via Internet Archive.
  • Pritzker, Barry M. "Pomo". The American Indian Experience: The American Mosaic. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Solutions. OCLC 256500685.
  • Smith-Ferri, Sherrie (1998). "The Development of the Commercial Market for Pomo Indian Baskets". Expedition Mag. Vol. 40, no. i. Philadelphia: Penn Museum. ISSN 0014-4738. Archived from the original on 2020-05-01.
  • Sutton, Imre (2006). "Researching Ethnic Indians in Southern California: Commentary, Bibliography, and Online Resources". American Indian Civilization and Research Periodical (Commentary). 30 (3): 75–127. doi:x.17953/aicr.xxx.3.v12v8884w2x307t3.
  • Theodoratus, Dorothea J. (1974). "Cultural and Social Change Among the Coast Fundamental Pomo". The Periodical of California Anthropology. one (2): 206–219. JSTOR 27824792. Archived from the original on 2018-04-twenty. Retrieved 2021-05-21 .
  • Tiller, Veronica East. Velarde, ed. (1996). "California". American Indian Reservations and Trust Areas. Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Assistants, U.Due south. Department of Commerce. pp. 227–310. OCLC 35209517 – via HathiTrust.

Magazine & newspaper articles, web sources [edit]

  • "American Indian and Alaska Native Summary File Dataset". data.census.gov (Flat files). 2010 Census of Population and Housing. United States Census Bureau. December 13, 2012. Archived from the original on 2021-06-03. [ verification needed ]
  • "Culture". Santa Rosa, CA: Dry out Creek Rancheria Ring of Pomo Indians. Archived from the original on 2021-04-21.
  • Giese, Paula (1997). "Pomo People: Brief History". Native American Indian: Art, Culture, Education, History, Scientific discipline. Native Basketry: Survival, Beauty. Archived from the original on 2021-03-05.
  • Gilio-Whitaker, Dina. "The Pomo Death March: A Niggling Known Relocation Effect in Native American History". About.com. Archived from the original on 2013-01-10 – via Wayback Machine. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  • Gonzalez, Sara; Modzelewski, Darren (2007). "Pathways through Time: The Kashaya Pomo Interpretive Trail at Fort Ross Land Historic Park". News from Native California. Vol. xx, no. three. pp. 31–34. ISSN 1040-5437.
  • "Grace Carpenter Hudson". Ukiah, CA: Grace Hudson Museum & Sunday House. Archived from the original on 2020-02-06.
  • Harney, Tom (April 19, 1992). "Beauty of Pomo Indian Baskets Endures; Their Value Continues to Ascent". Los Angeles Times. Smithsonian News Services. Archived from the original on 2020-09-30.
  • Larson, Elizabeth (May 12, 2007). "Bloody Island atrocity remembered at Sat ceremony". Lake Canton News. Contributions from Harold LaBonte. Lakeport, CA. Archived from the original on 2021-04-24.
  • "Luwana Quitiquit". Acta Online. Fresno, CA: Alliance for California Traditional Arts. 2011. Archived from the original on August 29, 2020. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  • Margolin, Malcolm (2012). "Leadership Traditions in Native California: An Imperfect Fine art for an Imperfect World". News from Native California. Vol. 26, no. 1. pp. 10–15. ISSN 1040-5437.
  • Phillips, Tony. "The Pomo". Mendocino Coast Model Railroad & Historical Society. Archived from the original on 2020-11-12.
  • "Pomo". Native American Heritage Commission. Digital Atlas of California Native Americans. State of California. Archived from the original on 2020-ten-28. Retrieved 2021-01-28 .
  • Richerson, Pete; Richerson, Scott (2001). Boyer, Amy J.; Goggans, January; Leroy, Daniel; Robertson, David; Thayer, Rob (eds.). "Encarmine Isle". Putah-Cache Bioregion Project. Putah and Cache: A Thinking Mammal's Guide to the Watershed. Davis, CA: University of California, Davis. Public Service Research Program. OCLC 889248256. Archived from the original on 2018-12-10 – via Wayback Machine. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  • "Tolay Lake Park: Natural and Cultural History". Friends of Tolay Lake Park. Archived from the original on 2016-03-06 – via Wayback Machine. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  • "Tolay Lake Regional Park: Cultural and Natural History". Sonoma County Regional Parks. Santa Rosa, CA: County of Sonoma. Archived from the original on 2020-10-24.

Further reading [edit]

Newspaper articles [edit]

  • Lambert, Leeann. "Conference Brings Pomo Basketry to Life, Keeping a Tradition Alive". and "Weaving". Ukiah Daily Journal. January 13, 2003. pp. one & 12. Retrieved August 30, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  • LeBaron, Gaye (May two, 1993). "Within 30 years, the Santa Rosa Indians were gone" (PDF). The Press Democrat (Column). lc19930502. Retrieved 2021-05-19 – via Sonoma State University Library.

Books for chief & secondary school students [edit]

  • Gray-Kanatiiosh, Barbara (2002). The Pomo. Native Americans. Edina, MN: Abdo. ISBN9781577656005.
  • Lund, Neb (1997). The Pomo Indians . Native Peoples. Mankato, MN: Bridgestone Books. ISBN9780516205250. OCLC 1035686361 – via Cyberspace Archive.
  • Williams, Jack S. (2003). The Pomo of California. The Library of Native Americans. New York: PowerKids Printing. ISBN9780823964369. OCLC 50323264.

External links [edit]

  • Gold, Greed & Genocide: The Pomo & The Paiute
  • Pomo Bear Doctors, by S.A. Barrett, 1917
  • Brief summary regarding Pomo baskets as role of a virtual tour for the National Museum of the American Indian exhibit All Roads Are Good

antonieffthonflused.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomo